Journal Archive

Bali is the only Hindu island in Indonesia. Based on the community structure, Balinese people are separated into the Bali Aga and Bali Hindu. The Bali Aga, or the Mountain People, are the pure Balinese who migrated to the mountains during the occupation by the Hindu- Javanese during the rule of the Majapahit Kingdom(circa 1500). During that time, Hindu religion started in Bali. Bali Hindu is characterized by the assimilation of Hindu religion and the local animist beliefs(Wrońska-Friend, 2015). Due to its religion, the life of Balinese society is filled with custom laws and ceremonies that go along with everyday activities. From this influence, from the day a Balinese is born until they die, ceremonies are held in order to create a religious balance in their life. These ceremonies require special textiles to complete the rituals.

Creating textiles is considered an act of art. In Bali, the production of art is based on the balance of Tri Hita Karana, or the three reasons of happiness, which are the balance between human and God, between human and human, and between humans and their surroundings( Soedjatmoko, Damais, & Saputra, 1993). In fact “In Bali, the creation and presentation of art is a devotional act”(Davies, 2007, p. 23). The entire act of art comes back to God.

Culture contributes a huge part of Balinese life and all of their art is intended to be given back to Tri Murti, the deity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva(Soedjatmoko et al., 1993). Balinese of all ages and social classes learn and produce art. In the textile making process, men and women create textiles side by side. The essences of traditional textiles are the value and high craftsmanship of the weavers. This creates the difference of traditional Balinese textiles from machine- produced textiles.

The literature review analyzed specific Balinese textiles with case study approaches. This paper examines the aesthetics of Balinese sacred cloth. The literature review studied in this paper focuses on Balinese textiles based on field research in Eastern Bali. This creates a new body of study material.

Widiawati and Rosandini(2012) did a case study of natural dyeing in Geringsing woven cloths. Natural dyeing in Indonesia has its own characteristics and uniqueness. Focusing on the natural dyeing of Geringsing woven cloths, this paper examined the relationship of color and philosophy of Bali. In addition their paper observed the process of dyeing from the locals.

Nabholz-Kartaschoff(2008) did a case research on the so-called Kain Sembiran. However, the textile did not come from the Sembiran area at all. The case study was done by observing the history of Bali and writings from traders. That paper found that the original textile from Sembiran consists of simple lines and a cloth called lamak.

Bjork(2013) examines the relationship between mythology and weaving, studying the hospitality of color healing presence in ceremonial Balinese textiles and the relationship between Balinese and Greek mythology. The sense of mythology weaves through the textiles, creating myth fabrics for one’s life. That paper also shows how the dualism in Balinese myth and the combination of Balinese colors gives balance and healing.

This research aims to observe the aesthetics of Balinese sacred cloths. The paper addresses three fundamental questions. Firstly, what are the developments of Balinese textiles? Secondly, what are the design characteristics of Balinese sacred cloths? Lastly, what are the aesthetics of Balinese sacred cloths based on the field research?

The paper observes the ancient Balinese sacred cloths based on literature research, while modern Balinese sacred cloths are examined by the field research. Quantitative research included in this study reveals 261 images taken from the Museum of Bali and previous studies. Qualitative research has been done by the field research( from 3 to 11 July, 2015, and from 17 to 23 January, 2016) in one dyeing production house in Klungkung Village and nine weaving production houses in Tanglad, Klungkung, and Tenganan Village as well as Satria Sub-district in the eastern part of Bali, as well as from the Museum of Bali, and Pekan Kebudayaan Bali 2015, an annual art festival in Bali.

The research determines the design characteristics and aesthetic in Balinese sacred cloths. It observes the spirituality, developments, and function of Balinese textiles. Spirituality plays a huge role in Balinese life, it determines why, when, and how the textiles are created. The developments of Balinese textiles portray the function transition progress of the ancient era into the modern era. This progress develops the characteristics and purpose of Balinese sacred cloths.

The design characteristics of Balinese sacred cloths are studied based on techniques, colors, and patterns. Balinese sacred cloths were chosen by their function in ceremonies, as the medium of ancestors, healing purpose, evil-repellent, ceremonial costume, and temple decoration.

Finally, this paper analyzes the design aesthetics of Balinese textiles founded in both the literature review and field research.

Spirituality is a fundamental aspect in Bali. During the ancient era of Bali, Balinese practiced their own animism in which they worshiped the ancestors of the land and the sea(Wrońska-Friend, 2015). Later, this indigenous animism fused with Hinduism and created the religion of Hindu Dharma.

Balinese society created the philosophy of desa-kala-patra, referring to orientation in space, time, and social strata. They also created a calendar which determines the right time, the right space, and the right social situation and standing( Daerdia, 2012). This system is believed to create a balance between sekala and niskala. Sekala is the secular, the visible forces, while niskala is the invisible force. The land and people maintain and balance this sacredness in Bali. This philosophy is applied in textile making and created sacred cloths that serve in maintaining the balance of sekala and niskala.

Another philosophy is the nawasanga<Fig. 1>. The Nawasanga is an entire system of cosmos that is divided into eight cardinal directions or rulers(gods) and the ninth point is at the center. According to Darta, Couteau, & Bréguet(2013), “Nawasanga is also called the sacred compass rose or the mandala of the world.” (p. 42). Bjork (2013) claims that nawasanga represents “all of the rulers from a finite set of elements including colors, letters, numbers, sounds, and forces“ (p. 83). The nawasanga is used in rituals and textile making.

<Fig. 1> 
Nawasanga

(Darta et al., 2013. p. 42)

“To truly enter into the realm of sacred textiles in Bali, one must first define and contextualize sacredness in textiles and sacredness in Bali (Daerdia, 2012, p. 4).” The ideologies of nawasanga are embedded in the textiles’ function, technique, pattern, and color. Textiles are more than just cloth. Textiles are a medium of the divine universe, and their material manifests the visible force(Hauser-Schaublin, Nabholz-Kartaschoff & Ramseyer, 1991). This semiotic medium is infused with niskala and used in exorcism, purification, spiritual protection, and offering. In addition, there are sacred textiles for royalty and they are forbidden to be used by normal citizens. This creates textiles as a medium of praying, as clothing for religious events and as clothing for temples. In Balinese society, caste is the basis of social status; therefore textiles also played the role of status divider.

Balinese cloth developed during two periods: the ancient and modern era. This paper specifies the ancient era as the time before the 20^th century and the modern era as the colonization by the Dutch period and independence of Indonesia period. The ancient and modern era is divided by its religious belief. The ancient era practice the local animism and modern era was influenced by the common religion(e.g. Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity). The characteristics of Balinese textiles during these periods are expounded below<Table 1>.

Characteristics	Era	Balinese Textile
		Endek	Songket	Prada	Cepuk	Geringsing
Religious function: 1. Praying medium to God 2. Clothing for religious events 3. Temple decoration 4. Status divider	Ancient:Before 20th Century (500 BC-AD 1909)	<Fig. 2> Endek (Hauser-Schaublin et al., 1991, p. 16)	<Fig. 3> Songket (Hauser-Schaublin et al., 1991, p. 34)	<Fig. 4> Prada (Wronska-Friend, 2015, p. 98)	<Fig. 5> Cepuk (Hauser-Schaublin et al., 1991, p. 95)	<Fig. 6> Geringsing (Hauser-Schaublin et al., 1991, p. 65)
Economic function: 1. Industrial revolution 2. Economic commodity	Modern:Colonization by the Dutchb (AD 1910-1942	<Fig. 7> Endek (Hauser-Schaublin et al., 1991, p. 15)	<Fig. 8> Songket (Wronska-Friend, 2015, p. 114)	<Fig. 9> Prada (Wronska-Friend, 2015, p. 99)	<Fig. 10> Cepuk (Wronska-Friend, 2015, p. 83)	<Fig. 11> Geringsing (Wronska-Friend, 2015, p. 55)
Unity Function: Textiles as one of Indonesian identity	Independence of Indonesia (AD 1945-Present) (Field Research)	<Fig. 12> Endek (Photographed by researcher, 2016)	<Fig. 13> Songket (Photographed by researcher, 2016)	<Fig. 14> Prada (Photographed by researcher, 2016)	<Fig. 15> Cepuk (Photographed by researcher, 2016)	<Fig. 16> Geringsing (Photographed by researcher, 2016)

The technique of creating Balinese textiles requires a special ritual of praying, fasting, and offerings to the deities. These religious acts are done in order to be blessed by the deities and to avoid mistakes while creating the textiles. It is believed that the true creators of a textile are not solely the weavers, but the people responsible for the tying and dyeing process (Wrońska-Friend, 2015). In Bali, the sacred cloths are only created on the “back strap loom” called cagcag. The techniques of pattern making in Bali covers Weft Ikat, weave with Supple-mentary Weft, Double Ikat, and Prada.

1) Weft Ikat: Worship

Ikat, which means ‘to tie’ or ‘to bond’, is a pattern-making method that ties the yarns in specific compositions before dying. Weft Ikat means, the weft part of the cloths are tied according to a specific pattern and then immersed into a dyeing solution(Gillow & Dawson, 1995) <Fig. 17>. Weft Ikat technique was influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist religion, which was bought by the Chinese and Indian merchants. This binding technique is the first weaving technique made in Bali. It is believed that the goddess of Ratih taught the citizens how to weave.

<Fig. 17> 
Weft Ikat

(Photographed by researcher, 2015)

2) Weave with Supplementary Weft: Status

The weave with Supplementary Weft technique is a technique adds additional weft yarns into the weaving to create a pattern. In Bali, it is called Songket. The technique was bought by monks studying in Palembang(Sumatra) to Bali in the 7^thcentury(Hauser-Schaublin et al., 1991). These patterns are created directly on the cagcag loom. The designed patterns are first created by thin long sticks that are then removed one-by-one <Fig. 18>. This technique is used for maturity ceremonies such as tooth filling and marriage. In addition, it also shows the social status of the wearer.

<Fig. 18> 
weave with Supplementary Weft

(Photographed by researcher, 2015)

3) Double Ikat: Spiritual

Double Ikat is a unique technique using both warp and weft Ikat to create the pattern. This is considered the most difficult technique among Ikat techniques. The yarns should be perfectly tied and matched between the warp and weft to produce a visible pattern<Fig. 19>. The Indian merchants from Gujarat introduced this technique through trading Patola(Indian double Ikat textile) cloth to the Balinese.

<Fig. 19> 
Double Ikat

(Photographed by researcher, 2015)

4) Prada: Royal

Prada is a technique of patterning using glue and gold flakes. The glue is made from mixture of albumen or linseed oil mixed in yellow earth(ruddle)(Gillow & Dawson, 1995). Creating Prada involves drawing a pattern using glue and to dust the gold on top of it. Today, Prada is made using gold foil created by silk printing technique<Fig. 20>. Unlike other types of textiles in Bali, this technique is performed by only men(Widana, 2016).

<Fig. 20> 
Prada

(Photographed by researcher, 2016)

Colors of Balinese textiles are classified by era(ancient and modern). Colors in Bali represent the gods seen in their religion. The gods of the color are based on the nawasanga<Fig. 1>. The colors in this paper are standardized by Pantone’s color code(Pantone, 1992)<Table 2>.

Era	Ancient			Modern
Technique	Natural Dyeing			Synthetic Dyeing
Characteristics of Color	Interpretation	Material	Color	Interpretation	Material	Color
	<Fig. 21> The God of Brahma (Darta et al., 2013, p. 42)	<Fig. 22> Noni Roots (lionheartherbs, n.d)	Red/Burgundy Pantone 19-1617 TP	<Fig. 23> The god of Mahadewa (Darta et al., 2013, p. 42)	<Fig. 24> Naftol (Photographed by researcher, 2016)	Yellow/Lemon Pantone 13-0752 TP
	Red is the interpretation of the God of Brahma, the symbol of birth			Yellow is the interpretation of the god of Mahadewa, signify sacred(tenget)
	<Fig. 25> The god of Visnu (Darta et al., 2013, p. 42)	<Fig. 26> Indigofera Paste (sloparker, 2015)	Black/Dark Navy Pantone 19-4013 TP	<Fig. 27> The god of Sangkara (Darta et al., 2013, p. 42)	<Fig. 28> Naftol (Photographed by researcher, 2016)	Green/Glistening Green Pantone 14-5715 TP
	The god of Visnu is portrayed by the color Black with the meaning of death			The god of Sangkara, portrayed by the color Green, conveys the origin of life
	<Fig. 29> The god of Shiva. (Darta et al., 2013, p. 42)	<Fig. 30> Candlenut Fruit (Photographed by researcher, 2016)	White/Light Taupe Pantone 16-1210 TP	<Fig. 31> The god of Sambu (Darta et al., 2013, p. 42)	<Fig. 32> Procion (Photographed by researcher, 2016)	Blue/Blue Dazzle Pantone 18-4223 TP
	The god of Shiva is the interpretation of life, is seen in the color White			The god of Sambu in the color Blue, means fertility
				(No Interpretation)	<Fig. 33> Naftol (Photographed by researcher, 2016)	Purple/Tillandsia Purple Pantone 19-3638 TP
				Purple is the symbol of Balinese aesthetic

Balinese patterns are examined through the ancient and modern era. Through different political conditions and textile functions, Balinese patterns acquire different characteristics. Commercially, Balinese sacred cloths are not allowed to be sold. Only the failed sacred cloths that are not worthy of god are sold to tourists (Covarrubias, 1937). There are differences between patterns made in the ancient era(fixed) and modern era(complex)<Table 3>.

Era		Textile/Classification	Geometric	Human	Animal	Nature
Ancient		Endek	<Fig. 34> Grass Flower Anget	<Fig. 35> Demon		<Fig. 36> Flower
Modern			<Fig. 37> Cili		<Fig. 38> Butterfly	<Fig. 39> Flower
Ancient		Songket	<Fig. 40> Border	<Fig. 41> Demon	<Fig. 42> Dragon	<Fig. 43> FLower
Modern			<Fig. 44> Star	<Fig. 45> Theatre mask	<Fig. 46> Dragon	<Fig. 47> Flower
Ancient		Prada	<Fig. 48> Border		<Fig. 49> Phoenix	<Fig. 50> Flower and Tendril
Modern			<Fig. 51> Border			<Fig. 52> Flower
Ancient		Cepuk	<Fig. 53> Flower			<Fig. 54> Flower
Modern			<Fig. 55> Lotus flower	<Fig. 56> Man		<Fig. 57> Lotus flower
Ancient		Geringsing	<Fig. 58> House	<Fig. 59> Praying man	<Fig. 60> Scorpio	<Fig. 61> Lotus flower
Modern			<Fig. 62> Geometric	<Fig. 63> Man	<Fig. 64> Elephant	<Fig. 65> Lotus flower

Klungkung Village is known for its Endek and Songket production. During the Bali kingdom, the cloths were made by princesses living in local castles called puri and used by royal families to distinguish their royal status. Nowadays, the cloths are used for formal and ceremonial costumes. Endek and Songket are a traditional pride of Bali.

1) Endek[eun-deuk]: Royal Statement

Endek was worn by royalty as a statement of their position. Earliest Endek dates from the late 19^th to early 20^th centuries. Endek uses the weft Ikat technique created from cotton or silk. This research observes the production of Astiti, Dian, and Mujur Sari weaving houses. The home company owns five to ten non-machine looms(Alat Tenun Bukan Mesin). The weavers are commonly women, however, in Dian weaving house, male workers dominate the production house. Endek designs are filled with geometric forms. Early figural representation, which is rare, consists of Patola patterns, lions, riders, and elephants( Hauser-Schaublin et al., 1991). Nowadays, Endek designs are created from old Endek patterns or borrowing other cloth’s pattern with creative patterns. A consistent month’s working can create up to 80 meters<Fig. 66, 67>.

<Table 4> 
Observation of the Aesthetics of Balinese Textile

Klungkung – Endek		Klungkung - Songket
<Fig. 66> Endek Production (2015, July 11)	<Fig 67> Endek Silk Screen (2015, July 11)	<Fig 68> Songket Production (2015, July 11)	<Fig. 69> Songket Patterm (2015, July 11)
Klungkung – Synthetic		Dyeing Satria Sub-district - Prada
<Fig. 70> Cold Dyeing (2016, January 21)	<Fig. 71> Hot Dyeing (2016, January 21)	<Fig. 72> Prada Silk Screen (2016, January 21)	<Fig. 73> Prada With Gold Foil (2016, January 21)
Nusa Penida – Cepuk		Tenganan - Geringsing
<Fig. 74> Cepuk Production House (2015, July 7)	<Fig. 75> Cepuk Production (2015, July 7)	<Fig. 76> Geringsing Production (2015, July 5)	<Fig. 77> Geringsing Costume (2015, July 5)

(Photographed by researcher, 2016: Table by researchers, 2017)

Satria sub-district at Klungkung village is known for its heritage Prada making. Over centuries, Prada cloth was brought by Indian and Chinese merchants to Java and Bali. With the belief that the gift is handed down through generations, Prada making is preserved in this area with modern techniques. The opulent cloths were made using gold leaf(Hauser-Schaublin et al., 1991). However, today, Prada is seen to be made of gold foils. The Prada production house that was researched is owned by Anak Agung Widana. There, the Prada technique is used to create religious attributes such as textiles, umbrellas, temple decorations and banners. The Prada technique only requires 30 minutes in its process<Fig. 72, 73>.

Cepuk is known for purificatory, protective, defensive, strength, and magical functions. Cepuk means to be brought face to face with something, as they are used for rituals that interact with erratic divine powers(Hauser-Schaublin et al., 1991). Cepuk was inspired from Patola textiles. Old cepuk is more powerful as its patterns have great similarities with patola. Patola is treated like an object with a soul. As members of the Balinese culture, the deceased are cremated(ngaben). Following this tradition, in 1939, a destroyed cepuk was burned into ashes by the priest of the Pura Dalem(temple) so it would pass on to the next world(Hauser-Schaublin et al., 1991).

Taglad Village produces cloths over one month of process. The production of Cepuk is personal and created in the citizens own home <Fig. 74, 75>. The production now uses synthetic dye process for coloring. Cepuk composition is a border and centerfield. It is a metaphor of the human being with a head(eled), lips(bibih), smile(kenjng), and eyebrows(alis kening). The flower borders are seen as guardians that protect the temple. Lastly, the gigi barong pattern refers to the strength of Barong. Created with Weft Ikat, Cepuk color consists of red, white, and black. However, nowadays with the lack of weavers and interest in weaving, new creative cepuk designs have started to appear.

The traditional village(Bali Aga) of Tenganan created Geringsing cloths. Geringsing has magical qualities to protect and heal. Geringsing is used for purification, healing, exorcism rituals, shrine decoration, and fabric offering. The strict traditional making process surrounds the textile, from choosing the materials, weaving, colors, and patterns. Geringsing is only made from cotton. As for dyeing materials, only ripened candlenut and indigo dyeing are used in the neighboring village of Bugbug. “Only in Geringsing water and oil come together”(Daredia, 2012, p. 20). The cloth is dyed in candlenut oil resulting in a waxy cloth. Originally, the process of creating a cloth took eight to 10 years in order to follow the tradition and rules of Geringsing making. However, now, the process is shortened.

Geringsing cloths are produced with 14 patterns and three colors. Geringsing patterns are categorized by their repetitive arrangement (Daredia, 2012). In modern era, Geringsing cloths are still used and produced based on fundamental Hindu values until this day<Fig. 76, 77>.